Man was born free and is everywhere in chains Essay Example

Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Essay Example Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Paper Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Paper p. 29. 9 Ibid, p. 33. 10 Alexis de Tocqueville, The old Regime and the French upheaval (New York: Double Day Anchor Books, 1955), p. 69. (unique distributed 1856, distributer obscure) 11 Cited in Carter, p. 41. 12 Cited in Andrew Heywood, Modern Political Ideologies (London: Macmillan Press, 1992), p. 127. 13 Richard Sylvan, Anarchism in Goodin, Robert, Philip Pettit (ed. ), An ally to Contemporary Political Philosophy (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1993), pp. 215-242. 14 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: An Introduction (London: Macmillan Press, 1992). p. 193. 15 George Growder, Classical Anarchism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). p. 191. 16 April Carter, p. 169. 17 David Miller, Anarchism, (London: J. M. Imprint Sons Ltd, 1984), p. 171. 18 George Growder, Classical Anarchism, p. 192. 19 Ibid,. p. 193. 20 Norman, P. Barry, An introduction to current political hypothesis, (London: Macmillan Press, 1981). p. 83. 21 John Passmore, The Perfectibility of Man (London: Duckworth, 1970), p. 189. 22 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies, p. 211. 23 Harold Barclay, People Without Government, p. 134. 24 David Morland, Anarchism, Human Nature and History, in Jon Purkis James Bowen (ed. ), Twenty-first Century Anarchism (London: Cassell Press, 2000), pp. 8-21. p. 21. 25 Goaman, Karen Mo Dodson. , A Subversive Current? : Contempory Anarchism Considered in Jon Purkis James Bowen (ed. ), Twenty-first Century Anarchism (London: Cassell Press, 2000), pp. 83-97. 26 Murray Bookchin, Anarchism, Marxism, and the Future of the Left (Edinburgh: A. K. Press, 1999). p. 154. 27 Andrew Heywood, p. 211. 28 David Miller, Anarchism, p. 183. Andrew Wallace/1592038/Dr. P. Bradshaw/Political Science/MAS2010.

Buisness and the Recession Free Essays

How AIG was influenced by U. S. downturn: AIG is a protection partnership that is global. We will compose a custom paper test on Buisness and the Recession or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now They have base camp in New York City, London, Paris, and Hong Kong. In the year 2000, the organization held the title for the 29th biggest organization on the planet. Things got ugly in this organization when, in 2008, they experienced a liquidity emergency and its FICO assessments were minimized beneath â€Å"AA† level. AIG needed to bring out various down credits and needed to offer some of its auxiliaries to take care of all. Source: Johnson, Rodney. â€Å"Is AIG a Tipping Point in This Recession? Boss Marketer Home Page. 24 Mar. 2009. Web. 14 May 2012. . How Sallie Mae was influenced by U. S. downturn: This Company was one of only a handful scarcely any organizations in business during this season of downturn that was influenced in a positive manner. With an ever increasing number of organizations falling flat and individuals losing their positions, this gives all Americans a lot more motivations to need to have advanced education and give their youngsters advanced educat ion. With the requirement for more instruction, comes all the additional expenses, and with an ever increasing number of individuals without employments, there is an incredible increment in requiring advances. That is actually what this company’s technique was and they made the most of the chance to give understudy credits to understudies the nation over seeking after an effective future. Source: â€Å"Sallie Mae. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Apr. 2012. Web. 14 May 2012. . How Lehman siblings was influenced by U. S. downturn: the Lehman siblings emergency initially started when Britain’s greatest home loan moneylender smashed 34 percent in early exchanging. Next, billions of dollars were cleared out when the FTSE fell beneath 4000 and it was by all accounts all declining from that point. Inside the following month following the Lehman Brothers crash, Bank of America took over Merrill Lynch and Mortgage mammoths Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac for all intents and purposes self-destructed. Source: Gamm, Scott. â€Å"Three Years Ago: Lehman Brothers Collapsed. † How to Save Money, Reduce Debt and Manage Credit Cards. 15 Sept. 2011. Web. 14 May 2012. . Government activity: in light of the economies downturn the administration took various activities. Projects were set up considered programmed stabilizers that would expand spending or slice expenses to whoever was affected by the ecession, without new enactment. Moves were made by the Federal Government on the side of the lodging and budgetary markets, increments in optional spending, and the death of boost bills. Source: Romer, Christina D. â€Å"From Recession to Recovery: The Economic Crisis, the Policy Response, and the Challenges We Face Going Forward. † The White House. White House, 22 Oct. 2009. Web. 14 Ma y 2012. . Do you feel any of the organizations assumed a job in making the present downturn or their own money related hardships? Do you feel they ought to have been progressively arranged to defeated budgetary hardships? Why or why not? I think generally, organizations did as well as could be expected to keep away from downturn, yet with regards to making their own money related hardships, taking out different credits didn't help any of the organizations whatsoever. I do concur that truly, they ought to have been progressively arranged to defeat the budgetary hardships and have more alternatives as opposed to putting themselves further into obligation. Should the legislature engage in â€Å"bailing out† significant U. S. companies? Why or why not? In the event that the administration can be of any assistance that doesn’t drive themselves or the organization into further harm then I don’t accept there is any explanation not to. Should organizations be required to take care of the legislature? Indeed completely. The administrations cash originates from us, the residents and it isn't reasonable that we would need to be paying off someone’s budgetary weights without the legislature being taken care of, in light of the fact that then we would need to give more cash when we may have money related weights of our own. Instructions to refer to Buisness and the Recession, Essay models

My First 7 Jobs

My First 7 Jobs You may have caught wind of a Twitter topic, “First 7 Jobs,” where celebrities and entrepreneurs have been sharing the list of … obviously … their first 7 jobs. What struck me about the lists I saw is that people didn’t seem to have as many “starter” jobs as I did. Buzz Aldrin’s third job was as a fighter pilot, and by his 4th job he was already an astronaut! I wonder if the following list shows a lack of focus on my part? Or perhaps on the bright side, a sense of curiosity? It’s possible that I started with my moment of fame and am only now rising back up to a position that meets my capabilities! Here’s the list: 1. Sesame Street My parents took my sister and me to audition for Sesame Street when I was 6 years old or so, and we both got the job. I learned that Oscar and Big Bird are the same person, and how to say Rubber Baby Buggy Bumpers many times fast. I learned how to put my checks in the bank and start saving. I also learned that I was not very good at voice over reports on what animals were doing. It’s harder than it looks! 2. Baby Sitting How a mother would trust the safety of a 2-year-old or 7-year-old to me still baffles me. Thankfully there were no mishaps that I can remember. I learned to keep  emergency numbers on the fridge, and not to argue when someone wanted to give me extra money. I discovered that I like kids and am pretty good with them, in small doses. 3. Helping out at my dad’s real estate management office At my dads office,  I learned how to file, collate, and copy. These paper-focused skills are, well, not as useful as they once werebut sometimes I am still the one to figure out how to clear a paper jam. I’ve always been great in an office environment. 4. Cashier at Carrot Top Bakery I got this job because my dad was friends with the owner, and was introduced to the world of bulk baking. I learned that even though I can do math in my head, I need to punch the actual numbers into the cash register so the business has a record of what was purchased (see my blog, How I Messed Up On My First Jobâ€"and What You Can Learn From My Mistakes!). When the phone company across the street went on strike, I learned that when you depend on one client for most of your business, you are at great risk. Perhaps this insight sowed the seeds of my entrepreneurial bent. 5. Counselor, Lifeguard and Swim Instructor at a summer camp To explore my “crunchy granola” side, I went back to my old, favorite summer camp as a counselor. I learned that the place was just as magical as a counselor as it was as a camper. And how to stay out all night without my 12-year-old bunk of campers finding out. Later in life, I used my lifeguarding skills to get free gym memberships when my salary didn’t support that luxury. Later, I shifted to a preference for monthly payments and more free time. 6. Assistant to a Director at the Yale Alumni Association This was a pretty great part-time job when I was in college. I learned how to suck up, and that when you have a position of power, no one will bat an eyelash when you can ask your student employee to run to get your dry cleaning. I also learned how to pick up dry cleaning. This trick of squeezing personal tasks into the workday has served me well as an entrepreneur. 7. Naturalist at Glacier National Park I volunteered for a summer after my sophomore year of college with the Student Conservation Association. In the remote mountains of Montana, I learned that not everyone appreciates my New York attitude. More practically, I gained skills in how to tie food high up in a tree and  make a lot of noise in the woods to warn the bears; and lets not forget the upside-down map tours of the park from behind the visitor center desk. I learned what crampons are. I also learned how to survive for a summer on the food available in a Montana corner store. I liked this outdoorsy type of job, and it led to my 8th job as an environmental education instructor. After that I went back to office jobs. What do you think my first seven jobs say about me? What do yours say about you? I’m curious to hear!

Parents Guide to the Pros and Cons of Homeschooling

According to statisticbrain.com, more than 1.5 million children in the United States are homeschooled. Homeschooling is a highly debated school choice topic. Parents choose to homeschool their children for a myriad of reasons. Some of these reasons are based on religious beliefs, others are for medical reasons, and some just want complete control of their child’s education. It is important for parents to make an informed decision regarding homeschooling. Even advocates of homeschooling will tell you that it is not the right placement for every family and child. The pros and cons of homeschooling should be carefully weighed before making that decision. Parents must examine the entire process of homeschooling instead of focusing on the idea of homeschooling. Pros of Homeschooling Flexibility of Time Homeschooling allows children to learn on their own time. Parents control how much time each day and how often their children complete their lessons. They are not boxed into the typically 8:00-3:00, Monday-Friday time in which traditional schools operate. Parents can customize their child’s schooling around their own schedules, their child’s ideal learning time, and can take school with them anywhere. In essence, a homeschool student never misses classes because lessons can be completed at virtually any time. Lessons can be always be doubled up on a particular day if something arises that interferes with the regular schedule. Educational Control Homeschooling allows parents to have complete control over their child’s education. They control the content that is taught, the way that it is presented, and the pace at which it is taught. They may provide their child with a more narrowed focus on certain topics such as math or science. They may provide their child with a more broad focus and include subjects such as art, music, politics, religion, philosophy, etc. Parents may choose the omit subject matter that does not align with personal or religious beliefs. Educational control allows parents to make every decision when it comes to their child’s education. Closer Family Relationships Homeschooling allows families to spend more time with each other. This often results in an increased bond between parents and children and amongst siblings. They essentially rely on each other for everything. Learning and play time are shared amongst all members of the family. In families with multiple children, the older sibling(s) can help teach the younger sibling(s). Education and learning often become the focal point of a family who is homeschooling. When one child is academically successful, the entire family celebrates that success because each of them contributed to that success in some way. Exposed to Less A big benefit to homeschooling is that children are able to be sheltered from immoral or corruptible behaviors that occur in schools across the country. Inappropriate language, bullying, drugs, violence, sex, alcohol, and peer pressure are all issues that children in schools are exposed to on a daily basis. There is no denying that these things have a profound negative effect on young people. Children who are homeschooled may still be exposed to things through other avenues such as television, but parents can more readily choose when and how their children learn about these things. One on One Instruction Homeschooling allows parents to provide one on one individualized instruction to their child. There is no denying that this is advantageous for any child. Parents can better identify individual strengths and weaknesses and tailor lessons to meet their child’s specific needs. One on one instruction also minimizes distractions helping the child remained focused on the content being taught. It allows students to learn at a faster rate with more rigorous content. Cons of Homeschooling Time Consuming Homeschooling takes quite a bit of time for the parent responsible for providing the education. This time increases with each additional child. Parents must take the time to plan and research the content that they need to teach their children. Teaching the lessons, grading papers, and keeping track of each child’s progress also takes a considerable amount of time. Parents who homeschool have to give their children their undivided attention during learning time which limits what they are able to do around their house. Cost Money Homeschooling is expensive. It takes a lot of money to purchase the necessary curriculum and the homeschool supplies you need  to educate any child adequately. Integrating any form of technology into homeschooling including computers, iPads, educational software, etc. increases the cost significantly. In addition, one of the allures of homeschooling is the ability to regularly taking your children on educational outings or field trips whose costs add up quickly. Underlying operational costs for meals and transportation must also be taken into consideration. The lack of proper funding can significantly inhibit the education you provide to your child. No Break No matter how much love your children, it is always enjoyable to have some time alone. In homeschooling, you are both their teacher and their parent which limits the time you can spend away from them. You see each other and deal with each other all the time which can lead to an occasional conflict. It is essential that conflicts are quickly resolved, or it can have a profound effect on the schooling itself. The dual roles of parent and teacher can lead to stress. This makes it even more important for parents to have an outlet for stress relief. Limited Peer Interactions Homeschooling limits the amount of social interaction that children can have with other children their own age. Interacting with peers is a fundamental aspect of child development. While there are other avenues to ensure that the homeschooled child receives this beneficial interaction, the diverse interactions available at a regular school are difficult to simulate. Limiting a child’s interactions to parents and siblings can lead to social awkwardness later on in life. Lack of Expert Instruction There are parents who have a background and training in education who choose to homeschool. However, the majority of parents who homeschool do not have any training in this area. It is not realistic for any parent regardless of their education to be an expert on everything their child needs from kindergarten through twelfth grade. This is an issue that can be overcome, but being an effective teacher is difficult. It will take a lot of time and hard work to provide your child with a quality education. Parents who are not properly trained can harm their child academically if they do not spend the time to ensure that they are doing things the correct way.

Reflection Paper on Organizational Behavior Course

Reflection Paper on Organizational Behavior Course When the Philippine Army (PA) gave me a Masteral Degree Scholarship, I was told to take a Human Resource Management (HRM) course. Since I chose to take my graduate course in UP Diliman {where I took my BA in Public Administration undergraduate course before going to the Philippine Military Academy (PMA)}, I enrolled in the School of Labor and Industrial Relations (SOLAIR) because they have an equivalent graduate course in HRM, which is the Master of Industrial Relations where I can specialize in Human Resource Development. The intent of my graduate study is to educate me with the latest trends, principles, procedures, programs, policies and concepts in HRM, and be able relate and apply†¦show more content†¦So in a way many would say that it is very easy to manage a military unit or organization since everyone must follow orders, but this is easier said than done. In my experience, especially in my field assignment in a comba t unit in a critical area, as a platoon leader I had my initial challenge as an officer. â€Å"Greenhorn† as I am, leading a group of majority veteran soldiers, wherein their previous area of operations enabled them to be involved in combat encounters with the communist insurgents with a more experienced and senior platoon leader, it is like a rookie trying to be a go to guy in a basketball team, where I have to earn their respect first before being accepted truly as their leader. Yes, they will follow your orders, but there will be times where this rule will be challenged especially in combat situations. Now here lies the relevance of the course on organizational behavior. Knowledge in human personality, perception and attitude would indeed be very important in this situation, although this is well covered in my undergraduate course in management, the ideas of Fred Luthan’s on the chapter on Personality, Perception and Employee Attitude; and Natasha Marinkovic Grbaâ⠂¬â„¢s (Lisa Matthewman, et al. â€Å"Work Psychology†, Chapter 3) chapter on Personality and Individual Differences refreshes my previous knowledge on the topic andShow MoreRelatedreflection paper on organizational behavior699 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿BUSI 2101 – Organizational Behavior INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION PAPER The main objective of this semester was to learn various organizational behaviors that are conducted in a business environment outside the classroom; these would help us as students and as future business entrepreneurs. Throughout the semester, every week different professors came and gave us lectures. Each lecture was about different topic with professors of different departments. 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Ethics †Moral Principles Free Essays

The term ethics is defined as a system of moral principles. When incorporating ethics with business it is extremely difficult to determine what is considered moral or immoral, as well as what is judged as justice in society. One viewpoint on this topic opposes justice can be compatible with business. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethics – Moral Principles or any similar topic only for you Order Now The other viewpoint believes there is a line that draws between good and bad; it really depends upon the motive of the action. Is business ethics possible in our present day society? Matigari, a short story written by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, shows it is evident that Ngugi was trying to make it clear that ethics would be impossible in a democratic society. The main character in the story, whose name is Matigari, is continuously searching for truth and justice. â€Å"My friends! Can you tell me where a person could find truth and justice in this country? † (Ngugu, 1989) were his exact words when approaching people. The crowds would all look at him as if he were speaking nonsense. Matigari feels as though the democratic world in which he is living was created upside down. The builder sleeps in the open, the worker is left empty-handed, the tailor goes naked, and the tiller goes to sleep on an empty stomach† (Ngugu, 1989). He wonders where truth and justice lies in this world; for even those who farm are starving. His search leads him to a meeting called by the Minister for Truth and Justice. The real truth can be found within the oppressed. He had bui lt his own home, yet it was still taken away from him; it is a clear example of a capitalist private property. Matigari favours the labour theory of property, which gives labourers the right to own their own land. It is clearly not ethical to take one’s land away in which he or she worked upon. It is evident Matigari believes in the labour theory of property; whereas the government enforces a capitalist private property. The labour theory of property is a natural law theory that holds that property originally comes about by the person doing the labour upon natural resources. Land in its original state would be considered not owned by anyone, but if someone were to apply his or her labour to the land it would become their property. On the other hand, private property is central to capitalism (Samuels, 2002). Under capitalism, private hands control basic assets and productive resources. The major economic decisions are made by individuals or groups acting upon their own pursuit of profit. This is what the government has done; they have created the society into private property. For this reason, Matigari has declared for the labour theory of property to be sought out. The Kantian ethics believes all moral duties, maxims, or certain rules of conduct can be labelled either wrong or right. Act only on that maxim which you can will to be a universal law† (Macmillan, 1972). The universal law is fundamental. What is considered part of this universal conduct should be clear to everyone throughout the world. For example, rules that allow murder and cheating etc. cannot be part of the moral code. However, rules such as do not commit murder can be classified as a moral duty. Kant states one should only follow princip als that are morally correct. Moral rules are those that can be followed by people consistently throughout the world, no matter where one lives. Furthermore, the reward of virtue is not happiness but dignity and freedom (Macmillan, 1972). Kant tries to explain that when one is righteous and true, happiness is not the given prize, but one would receive self-respect and liberty instead. Real freedom means obeying no laws but only those that can be legislated as universal moral laws. Both viewpoints touch upon the topic of fear when it comes to ethics. â€Å"There is too much fear in this country†¦ Too much fear breeds misery in the land† (Ngugu, 1989). This so called fear in the story, Matigari, tries to explain that fear causes a society to become unjust. If everyone was too afraid to confront someone in which he or she were doing something unmerited then this injustice will continue. The democratic government is used as an example in the short story. All the citizens are too afraid to stand up to the prejudiced government; therefore, no changes were made until Matigari had no anxiety and fear of the government. In addition, the opposing viewpoint also speaks of fear in a society; although it is not exactly the same. No one ever obeys laws because they are scared but because one is morally trying to follow the universal moral laws. Freedom and fear cannot coincide when trying to make moral decisions. The Kantian viewpoint is one that is more comprehendible than the viewpoint found in the short story Matigari. It is agreeable that one can find ethics in business. A universal moral law is one that is shared throughout the world and would be agreed upon by all people from all nations. Due to the fact that there are many different cultures there is a â€Å"golden rule† to be found in all the great religions (Macmillan, 972). The golden rule is part of the moral code of anything that is judged as a moral principle. Being agreeable in all religions and cultures it would definitely be ethical to follow these rules of moral conduct. Such rules such as â€Å"thou shall not kill† (Lintin, 1999) can be found in the bible; it is part of the moral code. It is like an unwritten rule that everyone on this earth can understand that it is wrong to murder a human being. To a certain extent there is such thing as ethics when it comes to business and how a society should be run. How to cite Ethics – Moral Principles, Papers

Parkinson’s Disease free essay sample

SubstantianigraWhat Is Parkinson’s Disease? What Causes Parkinson’s Disease? Parkinsons disease is a progressive nervous system disorder that affects how the person moves, including how they speak and write. Symptoms develop gradually, and may start off with ever-so-slight tremors in one hand. People with Parkinsons disease also experience stiffness and find they cannot carry out movements as rapidly as before this is called bradykinesia. The muscles of a person with Parkinsons become weaker and the individual may assume an unusual posture. Parkinsons disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. Movement disorders describe a variety of abnormal body movements that have a neurological basis, and include such conditions as cerebral palsy, ataxia, and Tourette syndrome. Approximately one million adults in the USA are thought to live with Parkinsons disease; over 60,000 are diagnosed annually. The real figure is probably much higher when taking into account those who go undetected. We will write a custom essay sample on Parkinson’s Disease or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page According to the Parkinsons Disease Foundation, the economic toll of the disease in the USA is nearly $25 billion annually, including direct and indirect costs. The average annual medication costs for an American with Parkinsons disease is between $2,500 and $10,000. In the United Kingdom approximately 127,000 people have Parkinsons disease or 1 in every 500 people. About 10 million people around the world are estimated to be living with Parkinsons disease. A male has a 50% higher risk of developing Parkinsons disease than a female. In the majority of cases, symptoms start to appear after the age of 50. However, in about 4% to 5% of cases the sufferer is younger than 40 years. When signs and symptoms develop in an individual aged between 21 and 40 years, it is known as Young-onset Parkinsons disease. Apart from tremor and slow movements, the patient may also have a fixed, inexpressive face this is because of poorer control over facial muscle coordination and movement. Sir William Richard Gowers Parkinson Disease sketch 1886 2 People with Parkinsons generally have an unusual, stooping posture As a significant number of elderly patients with early Parkinsons disease symptoms assume that their traits may form part of normal aging and do not seek medical help, obtaining accurate statistics is probably impossible. There are also several different conditions which sometimes have comparable signs and symptoms to Parkinsons, such as drug-induced Parkinsonism, head trauma, encephalitis, stroke, Lewy body dementia, corticobasal degeneration, multiple system atrophy, and progressive supranuclear pasly. Parkinsons also affects the voice a British mathematician believes he has created a cheap and easy to carry-out test using speech signal processing algorithms to accelerate the diagnosis of Parkinsons disease. Max Little, who developed the algorithm at Oxford University, says that Parkinsons not only impacts on limb movement, but also on how people speak; on their voices. (Link to article) Parkinsons also affects sense of smell despite being incurable, doctors today can influence the course of the disease if Parkinsons is detected early enough; the destruction of brain cells can be slowed down this means a better quality of life for the patient for many years. Scientists have recently discovered that hyposmia, losing ones sense of smell for no known cause, might be a marker for the non-motor signs of Parkinsons disease. The scientists said Smelling tests in doctors offices are suitable for detecting hyposmia, but so too are tests conducted in public places such as pedestrian zones.(Link to article) Some factors may raise or lower the risk of developing Parkinsons Circumin an ingredient found in the spice turmeric, is apparently effective in preventing the clumping of a protein involved in Parkinsons disease, according to scientists from Michigan State University. (Link to article) Flavonoids adult males who regularly eat foods rich in flavonoids appear to have a co nsiderably lower risk of developing Parkinsons disease, compared to others who do not, researchers in the USA and UK reported in the journal Neurology. Examples of foods include berries, apples, some vegetables, tea and red wine. In this study, the protective effects come from anthocyanins, a subclass of flavonoids. (Link to article) REM sleep disorder people with REM (rapid eye movement) sleep behavior disorder may have twice the risk of developing Parkinsons disease or mild cognitive impairment, compared to others without the disorder, researchers at the Mayo Clinic reported in Annals of Neurology. (Link to article) Neurologist and co-author, co-author Brad Boeve, M. D. , said: Understanding that certain patients are at greater risk for MCI or Parkinsons disease will allow for early intervention, which is vital in the case of such disorders that destroy brain cells. Although we are still searching for effective treatments, our best chance of success is to identify and treat these disorders early, before cell death. Some reheated cooking oils aldehydes, which have been linked to Parkinsons, Alzheimers and other neurodegenerative diseases, as well as some cancers, can be found in some oils, such as sunflower oil, when heated to a certain temperature, and then used again. Scientists from the University of the Basque Country found that aldehydes remain in cooking oils after they are heated. (Link to article) Parkinsons disease is primarily caused by low and falling dopamine levels A person with Parkinsons has abnormally low dopamine levels. Dopamine-generating cells, known as dopaminergic neurons (types of nerve cells) in the substantia nigra part of the brain have died. Experts do not know why these cells die. When dopamine levels are too low, people find it harder to get things done, to control their movements. Dopamine levels progressively drop in patients with the disease, so their symptoms gradually become more severe. Dopamine is involved in the sending of messages to the part of the brain that controls coordination and movement. MidbraincrosssectionThe substantia nigra is in the midbrain and plays an important role in movement, reward and addiction Although Parkinsons disease is not a direct cause of death, it is a progressive disease, and symptoms get worse over time. Parkinsons is: A chronic disease a long-term disease. It is incurable. A progressive disease a disease that gradually gets worse. What is Parkinsonism? Parkinsonism is a neurological syndrome characterized by tremor, rigidity, postural instability, and hypokinesia (decreased bodily movement). A syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics that often occur together. Parkinsons disease is the most common cause of Parkinsonism. Put simply Parkinsonism includes the signs and symptoms that resemble Parkinsons disease. According to Medilexicons medical dictionary, Parkinsonism is: 1. A neurologic syndrome usually resulting from deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine as the consequence of degenerative, vascular, or inflammatory changes in the basal ganglia; characterized by rhythmic muscular tremors, rigidity of movement, festination, droopy posture, and masklike facies. 2. A syndrome similar to parkinsonism. Some features seen with Parkinsons disease that occur with other disorders (progressive supranuclear palsy) or as a side effect of certain medications (antipsychotic drugs). Parkinsons disease mentioned in history Descriptions of people with Parkinsonism date back to ancient Egypt. It is also mentioned in the Christian Bible and Claudius Galenus (Galens) writings. Claudius Galenus (or Aelius Galenus), who lived from 129 AD to around 200 AD, was a well-known Roman (of Greek origin) doctor and philosopher. Then there seem to be no clear references to PD (Parkinsons Disease) until the 17th century. Auguste Francois Chomel, a French pathologist, John Hunter, a Scottish surgeon, Hieronymus David Gaubius, a German physician and chemist, and Franciscus Sylvius, a Dutch chemist, physiologist and anatomist, all described Parkinsons-type signs and symptoms during the 17th and 18th centuries. James Parkinson James ParkinsonJames Parkinson (1755-1824) an English apothecary surgeon, political activist, paleontologist and geologist, wrote An Essay on the Shaking Palsy in 1817. In that work he is thought to be the first to describe paralysis agitans (shaking palsy), a condition which Jean-Martin Charcot renamed Parkinsons disease sixty years later. James Parkinson systematically described six people with signs and symptoms of the disease we know today as Parkinsons. They were not formally examined, but he observed them as they went on on their daily walks, and sometimes asked them to describe their symptoms to him. In his Essay Parkinson described the characteristic resting tremor, diminished muscle strength, paralysis, unusual posture and gait, and how the disease progresses over time. Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology, also known as the founder of modern neurology. His studies between 1868 and 1881 are described today by medical historians as a landmark in the understanding of Parkinsons disease. He also clearly defined and explained the difference between rigidity, weakness and bradykinesia (a slowness in the execution of movement). Charcot is also famous for naming and being the first to describe multiple sclerosis. Drawing by Charcot of a Parkinsons disease patientDrawing of a patient with Parkinsons by Charcot Frederic Lewy (1885-1950) a prominent American neurologist is best known for the discovery of Lewy bodies, characteristic indicators of Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinsons disease. Konstantin Nikolaevitch Tretiakoff (1892-1958) a Russian neuropathologist. While writing his thesis for his doctorate at LAssistance Publique des Hopitaux de Paris, France, he described the degeneration of the substantia nigra in cases of Parkinsons he was the first to link this anatomic structure with Parkinsons disease. Tretiakoffs findings were not accepted by many in the medical community, until they were confirmed in further studies carried out by Rolf Hassler, in 1938. Rolf Hassler (1914-1984) a distinguished German pathologist. Hassler made important discoveries in the treatment of Parkinsons disease. In a 1938 published paper, he wrote that autopsies of Parkinsons patients showed that the most affected part of the brain was the substantia nigra pars pallidus, which lost many neurons and had an abundant accumulation of Lewy bodies. He became a pioneer in surgery for tremor. Arvid Carlsson (1923) a Swedish scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine in 2000 for his work on dopamine, Carlsson is best known for his work with dopamine and its effects in Parkinsons disease. He demonstrated that dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain and not just a precursor for norepinephrine. Carlsson and his research team at Astra AB (today AstraZeneca) managed to derive the first marketed SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) zimelidine from brompheniramine. He noticed that dopamine levels in the basal ganglia are particularly high this part of the brain is important for movement. He then demonstrated that when animals were given reserpine, a drug, dopamine levels dropped and the animals lost movement control he explained that in Parkinsons disease, dopamine levels also fall, causing loss of movement. Carlsson then showed that when L-Dopa was administered to the animals, their symptoms were alleviated. L-Dopa is a precursor of dopamine. This breakthrough led doctors to try L-Dopa on their Parkinsons patients with early symptoms. L-Dopa is still the basis for most drugs prescribed for Parkinsons disease symptoms. Kazimierz Funk (anglicized as Casimir Funk 1884 1967) a Polish biochemist. Until the arrival of levodopa, anticholinergics and surgery were the only available treatments for patients with Parkinsons.